Compositions and methods for oxygenation of nucleic acids containing 5-methylpyrimidine

ABSTRACT

5-methylpyrimidine oxygenases and their use in the modification of nucleic acids are described.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/827,087 filed Mar. 14, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,040,239.

The entire disclosure of each of the following patent applications is hereby incorporated by reference into the present application: U.S. 61/611,295, filed Mar. 15, 2012; U.S. Application No. 61/722,968, filed Nov. 6, 2012; U.S. Application No. 61/723,427, filed Nov. 7, 2012; U.S. Application No. 61/724,041, filed Nov. 8, 2012; U.S. application Ser. No. 13/804,804, filed Mar. 14, 2013; U.S. application Ser. No. 13/826,395, filed Mar. 14, 2013; U.S. application Ser. No. 13/827,885, filed Mar. 14, 2013.

GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under GM105132 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

5-methylcytosine (5-mC) has been linked to gene expression and its distribution in the genome plays an important role in epigenetics. In 2009, two groups independently discovered that an oxidized form of 5-mC, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC), exists in human and mouse DNA, and is especially enriched in the neuronal tissues as well as embryonic stem cells. Three enzymes named TET1/2/3 have been shown in human and mouse to be responsible for oxidizing 5-mC to 5-hmC. TET enzymes belong to the broad family of Fe(II)/2-oxo-glutarate-dependent (2OGFE) oxygenases, which use 2-oxo-glutarate (2OG), as co-substrate, and ferrous ion (Fe(II)) as cofactor. After additional biochemical studies, it was discovered that these enzymes could oxidize 5-mC to generate oxidation products identified as 5-hmC, 5-formylcytosine (5-fC) and 5-carboxycytosine (5-caC). Finally, 5-caC is believed to be excised via the action of DNA glycosylases and replaced by the unmodified cytosine. The TET enzymes are very large proteins and hence it has been problematic to make these proteins in recombinant form and in sufficient quantities to use as a research reagent.

In order to identify the impact of the epigenome on phenotype, it is desirable to map the position of modified nucleotides and to understand when and where the various modifications arise. Sodium bisulfite sequencing is the predominant method for mapping modified cytosine in the genome. Unfortunately, this technique does not discriminate between 5-mC and 5-hmC. Different methods are required to distinguish 5-mC from 5-hmC and its oxidation products.

SUMMARY

Although Neigleria gruberi has not been previously reported to contain 5-mC or 5-hmC, the present inventors have surprisingly discovered that a protein from N. gruberi can be used in vitro to convert 5-mC to oxidized cytosines. That protein can be purified from natural sources or produced recombinantly, optionally as a fusion protein with another amino acid sequence to facilitate its purification or use.

Accordingly, in one aspect the invention provides a fusion protein in which a binding domain is fused to a recombinant 5-methylpyrimidine oxygenase (mYOX1) having a size less than 600 amino acids and having a catalytic domain having 90% or 100% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. In certain embodiments, the mYOX1 has an amino acid sequence with at least 90% identity (or more, such as at least 91% identity, at least 92% identity, at least 93% identity, at least 94% identity, at least 95% identity, at least 96% identity, at least 97% identity, at least 98% identity, or at least 99% identity) to amino acids 209-296, 160-297, 154-304 or 1-321 of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2 (mYOX1), and/or with the corresponding amino acids of any one of SEQ ID NOs:3-9 as aligned with SEQ ID NO:2 in FIG. 2B, optionally while retaining 90% or 100% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. In other embodiments, the mYOX1 has an amino acid sequence with at least 90% identity (or more, such as at least 91% identity, at least 92% identity, at least 93% identity, at least 94% identity, at least 95% identity, at least 96% identity, at least 97% identity, at least 98% identity, or at least 99% identity) to the entire length of SEQ ID NO:2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. The binding domain is capable of recognizing and binding to another molecule. Thus, in some embodiments the binding domain is a histidine tag (“His-tag”), a maltose-binding protein, a chitin-binding domain, or a DNA-binding domain, which may include a zinc finger and/or a transcription activator-like (TAL) effector domain. The fusion protein can be used as a mYOX1 (such as a 5-mC oxygenase or a thymine hydroxylase) in single- or double-stranded DNA or in RNA, typically at a pH of about 6 (generally between 5.5 and 6.5) to about 8, and, in some embodiments, at a pH of about 6 to about pH 7.5.

In another aspect, the invention provides buffered compositions containing a purified mYOX1 having a size less than 600 amino acids and having a catalytic domain having 90% or 100% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. In certain embodiments, the mYOX1 has an amino acid sequence with at least 90% identity (or more, such as at least 91% identity, at least 92% identity, at least 93% identity, at least 94% identity, at least 95% identity, at least 96% identity, at least 97% identity, at least 98% identity, or at least 99% identity) to amino acids 209-296, 160-297, 154-304 or 1-321 of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, and/or with the corresponding amino acids of any one of SEQ ID NOs:3-9 as aligned with SEQ ID NO:2 in FIG. 2B, optionally while retaining 90% or 100% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. In other embodiments, the mYOX1 has an amino acid sequence with at least 90% identity (or more, such as at least 91% identity, at least 92% identity, at least 93% identity, at least 94% identity, at least 95% identity, at least 96% identity, at least 97% identity, at least 98% identity, or at least 99% identity) to the entire length of SEQ ID NO:2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. In various embodiments, the composition contains glycerol; and/or contains Fe(II), as cofactor, and α-ketoglutarate, as co-substrate, for the enzyme. In some of these embodiments, the composition does not contain ATP, which can interfere with subsequent oxidation of hydroxymethylated nucleotides; in other embodiments, the composition does contain ATP (e.g. to inhibit further oxidation). The composition is optionally at a pH from about 6 to about 8. In certain embodiments, the pH is about 6, or is from about 6 to about 7.5.

The buffered compositions can be used to generate a variety of oxidation products of 5-mC, including 5-hmC, 5-fC, and 5-caC. The distribution of oxidation products can be varied by varying the pH of the reaction buffer. Accordingly, in various embodiments the pH of the buffered composition is about 6; about 6.0 to about 6.5; about 6.0 to about 7.0; about 6.0 to about 7.5; about 6.0 to about 8.0; about 6.5 to about 7.0; about 6.5 to about 7.5; about 6.5 to about 8.0; about 7.0 to about 8.0; or about 7.5 to about 8.0.

In some embodiments, the buffered compositions also include a nucleic acid, such as single- or double-stranded DNA that may include 5-mC (as a substrate for the enzyme) and/or one or more of 5-hmC, 5-fC, or 5-caC (naturally-occurring, and/or resulting from the activity of the enzyme).

The invention also provides kits for modifying nucleic acids. The kits include a purified mYOX1 having a size less than 600 amino acids and having a catalytic domain having 90% or 100% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, or any one of the buffered compositions or fusion proteins described above, together with a separate reaction buffer. In certain embodiments, the mYOX1 has an amino acid sequence with at least 90% identity (or more, such as at least 91% identity, at least 92% identity, at least 93% identity, at least 94% identity, at least 95% identity, at least 96% identity, at least 97% identity, at least 98% identity, or at least 99% identity) to amino acids 209-296, 160-297, 154-304 or 1-321 of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, optionally while retaining 90% or 100% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. The reaction buffer has a pH typically from about 6 to about 8, and may contain contains Fe(II) and/or α-ketoglutarate. In various embodiments, the pH of the reaction buffer is about 6; about 6.0 to about 6.5; about 6.0 to about 7.0; about 6.0 to about 7.5; about 6.0 to about 8.0; about 6.5 to about 7.0; about 6.5 to about 7.5; about 6.5 to about 8.0; about 7.0 to about 8.0; or about 7.5 to about 8.0. The kit may also include a nucleic acid such as single- or double-stranded DNA that may include one or more 5-mC residues. Also, or alternatively, the kit may include: a reducing agent, such as sodium borohydride, or an additive, such as cobalt chloride; a β-glycosyltransferase (BGT) and UDP-glucose and/or UDP-glucosamine; a DNA glycosylase such as thymine DNA glycosylase; and/or an endonuclease, such as an endonuclease that cleaves DNA containing 5-hmC more efficiently than it cleaves DNA containing β-glucosyl-oxy-5-methylcytosine (5-ghmC) (e.g. AbaSI).

The invention also provides kits for detecting the 5-mC in double-stranded or single-stranded DNA or RNA by sequencing, e.g., single-molecular sequencing such as Pacific Biosciences platform. The kits include a purified mYOX1 having a size less than 600 amino acids and having a catalytic domain having 90% or 100% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, or any one of the buffered compositions or fusion proteins described above, together with a separate reaction buffer. In certain embodiments, the mYOX1 has an amino acid sequence with at least 90% identity (or more, such as at least 91% identity, at least 92% identity, at least 93% identity, at least 94% identity, at least 95% identity, at least 96% identity, at least 97% identity, at least 98% identity, or at least 99% identity) to amino acids 209-296, 160-297, 154-304 or 1-321 of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, optionally while retaining 90% or 100% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. The reaction buffer has a pH typically from about 6 to about 8, and may contain contains Fe(II) and/or α-ketoglutarate. In various embodiments, the pH of the reaction buffer is about 6; about 6.0 to about 6.5; about 6.0 to about 7.0; about 6.0 to about 7.5; about 6.0 to about 8.0; about 6.5 to about 7.0; about 6.5 to about 7.5; about 6.5 to about 8.0; about 7.0 to about 8.0; or about 7.5 to about 8.0. The kit may contain other DNA/RNA repair enzymes for the DNA or RNA to be used in the sequencing platforms.

In another aspect, the invention provides methods for differentiating a 5-mC from 5-hmC in a genome or genome fragment. In one embodiment, the method includes: reacting the isolated genome or genome fragment containing 5-mC and 5-hmC with UDP-glucose or UDP-glucosamine, a glycosyltransferase for transferring glucose or glucosamine to the 5-hmC, and one of the previously described fusion proteins or buffered compositions; cleaving the glucosylated template with a modification-dependent endonuclease that recognizes at least one of the modified nucleotides; and differentiating the 5-mC from the 5-hmC by an altered cleavage pattern. In another embodiment, the method includes: reacting the isolated genome or genome fragment containing 5-mC and 5-hmC with UDP-glucosamine and a glycosyltransferase for transferring glucosamine to the 5-hmC; subsequently reacting the isolated genome or genome fragment with one of the previously described fusion proteins or buffered compositions and optionally with a reducing agent; cleaving the template with a modification-dependent endonuclease that is capable of selectively cleaving a 5-hmC and not a 5-ghmC; and differentiating the 5-mC from one or more of its oxidation products by an altered cleavage pattern. In each of these embodiments, the modification-dependent endonuclease is optionally AbaSI.

The invention also provides methods of modifying a 5-mC oxygenase by introducing random or targeted mutations and changing the specificity of the enzyme so as to exclusively oxidize 5-mC to 5-hmC.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows a phylogram of mYOX1 in Naegleria gruberi and TET proteins based on the ClustalW multiple sequence alignment. TET1_hs_C, human TET1 truncated C-terminus; TET1_mm_C, mouse TET1 truncated C-terminus; TET2_hs_C, human TET2 truncated C-terminus; TET2_mm_C, mouse TET2 truncated C-terminus; TET3_hs_C, human TET3 truncated C-terminus; TET3_mm_C, mouse TET3 truncated C-terminus.

FIG. 2A-B shows eight mYOX proteins in Naegleria gruberi and their alignments. This family of problems has a consensus sequence (R/K)X₄HXDX₁₂GX₁₈₋₃₀DX₁₀HXVX₇₋₇₂RX₅FA (SEQ ID NO:1).

FIG. 2A shows the conserved domain structure of the 8 mYOX proteins anchored by the 2OGFE catalytic domain. An additional domain, a CHROMO domain, was detected in one of the proteins.

FIG. 2B shows multiple sequence alignment of the 2OGFE catalytic domain sequences in mYOX proteins. Alignment was performed by the PROMALS program (http://prodata.swmed.edu/promals/promals.php).

FIG. 3 shows a single band of purified recombinant mYOX1 having a molecular weight of 37,321 Dalton on an SDS-PAGE.

FIG. 4A-C shows the activity of mYOX1. FIG. 4A shows the activity on double-stranded DNA with 24 fully-methylated CpG sites (“24× oligo”). FIG. 4B shows the activity on plasmid DNA (“pTXB1-M.Sss1”). FIG. 4C shows the activity on genomic DNA (“IMR90”).

All substrate DNA contained 5-mC. The generation of 5-hmC, 5-fC and 5-caC was monitored by liquid chromatography. The generation of 5-hmC was dependent on mYOX1, since no 5-hmC was detected in the absence of the enzyme. In addition, mYOX1 was able to convert thymine to 5-hmU, 5-fU and 5-caU (data not shown). These results indicate that mYOX1 is an active 5-mC oxygenase and thymine hydroxylase.

FIG. 5 shows methods for mapping methylome and hydroxymethylome using the DNA modification-dependent restriction endonucleases.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

In general and in at least one aspect, a novel family of enzymes is described. Generally, these enzymes can be described as mYOXs, or, more specifically, 5-mC oxygenases that can use 2OG, as co-substrate, and ferrous ion (Fe(II)), as cofactor. This novel family, whose members are referred to in this application as mYOXs, is distantly related to the TET proteins, as shown in the phylogram of FIG. 1, sharing about 15% sequence identity with them. Compared to TET proteins, mYOXs have several advantages as reagents for oxygenating 5-mC. With sizes in the range of 174-583aa, mYOXs are substantially smaller than enzymes of the TET family (which are ˜1600-2000aa), facilitating their recombinant production. Their small size renders these enzymes suitable as components in fusion proteins with, for example, DNA binding domains such as zinc fingers, and/or one or more additional enzymatic domains such as a glycosylase to promote the eventual excision of the modified cytosine. Moreover, in contrast to TET proteins, mYOXs operate more efficiently at pH 7.5 or less (e.g. at about pH 6), and do not require ATP which is significant because it reduces the possibility of side reactions, for example, phosphorylation, and permits use of the enzymes in conjunction with PCR amplification which is inhibited by ATP. An additional advantage of mYOX1 over TET proteins as research reagents includes its improved catalytic efficiency. For example, stoichiometrically fewer enzyme molecules are needed to oxidize 5-mCs when using mYOX1 rather than a TET enzyme.

One of the advantages of oxidizing 5-mC in vitro is the ability to add chemical or fluorescent labels onto DNA, which can be further coupled to sequencing technologies and map the DNA epigenomes.

mYOXs can be cloned and purified from Naegleria gruberi, a free-living single-cell protist as described in Example 1. Host cells suitable for expression include E. coli, yeast and insect cell systems producing greater than 10 μg/l, 20 μg/l, 30 μg/l, 50 μg/l, 70 μg/l, 100 μg/l, 200 μg/l, 300 μg/l, 400 μg/l, 500 μg/l and as much as 10 mg/liter of culture. A unit amount of mYOX1 is able to convert 1 pmol of 5-mC on DNA in 30 minutes at 34° C. in 1×mYOX1 reaction buffer at pH 6.0 (unit definition).

Exemplary mYOX protein sequences are provided in the following table:

SEQ ID Name Accession # NO: SEQUENCE mYOX1 XP_002667965.1 2 MTTFKQQTIKEKETKRKYCIKGTTANLTQT HPNGPVCVNRGEEVANTTTLLDSGGGINK KSLLQNLLSKCKTTFQQSFTNANITLKDEK WLKNVRTAYFVCDHDGSVELAYLPNVLPK ELVEEFTEKFESIQTGRKKDTGYSGILDNS MPFNYVTADLSQELGQYLSEIVNPQINYYIS KLLTCVSSRTINYLVSLNDSYYALNNCLYPS TAFNSLKPSNDGHRIRKPHKDNLDITPSSL FYFGNFQNTEGYLELTDKNCKVFVQPGDVL FFKGNEYKHVVANITSGWRIGLVYFAHKG SKTKPYYEDTQKNSLKIHKETK mYOX6 XP_002674105.1 3 MPMNYITSDLKTQLGEYLIGIVNPMLDETIT AALEILSPRTINYLTSLPHPYHILNNCIYPST AFNYLEPQIEKHRIKNAHKDTRDATPSVLF YLGDYDEKEGYLEFPEQNCKVFVKPGDLLL FKGNKYKHQVAPITSGTRLGLVYFAHKACK VMDFYDDYQKESLNKHKQQNQ mYOX4 XP_002676528.1 4 MSINTTFNQKTTQSGEPPMMMRMTNSSTP PLTPKNCLPIFVYNDYGKLIREEQQQPTDII TNNNNSMMRSMPTTNRWETNPQTPLSVS PFQPLLPIPNFSHAFIVGNLPPSVSVRRKNR KMSEKPKNNSAPSKIMHQLELSVLNNQRR IAPKGPLADISNIQLPQQESTNKSNNTTPK KPRIRQLMLTTPLRESLQSNQSARSKYIDE EANNYSINDSPETTIIKTSNTKDSEHKAAM ATNLGLSTDDFECKPFETTTLPSVIDKNYLV VDKEGCTQLALLPNHIPTSVCKLIEVKCRK VSNLRHALKIQKASFYVNWWTKSQPMGY MCKDNESEIGKVVNEIAELLSDHCRNLLR MCNERVYKKISELKEDKFFAPCICFNILEHD LESRITKFHHDKMDYGVSVLFYFGDYSRG NLNVLDAGSSSTIVTRPGDAVILRGNYYKH SVQNIEPGNNKARYSIVFFAHSTHFLKKKY ELSPAAAKKAFLVDNPDFVSIKKRKQASSS SDVSVKKSKKSTEDNVEFIQTHTYLGNGY KSGHKNYQYYVKFNNSDQKEWKSYESLPK QAVASYWVKFKKLKSLSNQ mYOX7 XP_002668594.1 5 MLEAQHHKLTIYTGMWGHMKPCVFIAADN CNKSGETIVENLLFKLGKIGSKLMEILSPFT MNFLSSLDPEIFLNHDLFPISATNFMIPGNK HRILKPHKDNQDVGLCIIFYFGNYNAPLEF VNKGSVFNTERGDVLLMRGSHFRHVVKPV DNGLLEHVHDPMRISVVLFAHKSLKMNPS YFLNAGSALKAHDEDFPEKAKKRKKKRK mYOX8 XP_002676954.1 6 MFLRNILPENTTTEVTNILDKINQRRSKENY YIGSWGKSSSFLFKTNDTIFNELSSQFIKII NLLKNYVLEILKFGNNKMRKFLEKYNSSDF LSIYPTVCFNFLDKSVDENRILHIHPDKEDT GTSLIFYFGKFKGGAISFPELNFKLMVQSA DVLLFDGKNNLHAVESLHGKDDVRYSVVF FAHKADLGKTSYPMNRGEVMKGIKNKINN mYOX5 XP_002668409.1 7 MDIGIDWRGTHFRHKNHLVKEEVCDRTN WIVLCPNGQVDIAFFPNAIPEELCLEMETV VANSDVDILSCKKAIIDGSWTRYGNGIYPV KTITTNQSILLHELNDKCGPFVLDKLKHINK NMFNKLDNINEDIKNYKIFAKYPTLALNVS HNENYNISKKPYRKHTDGNDIGLGVLTYFG SEIIEGGNLIIHIENLKVFNFPIQRRDLVFLN SKFYAHQVTKVTSGIRFGLVYFAGEAHFRV RNNDDFLPALPFNANDKELREERSKKGRK SMNEYKKRFLKKYLREKKKINKKRVKCKNK LK mYOX2 XP_002682154.1 8 MGPLHVSQHDKKKPKHRRRKKQFLKAQAL TRVCWENEKSIDESGKTRVYKMIKEWEFL KGNNIQSNEPILSVYGVNDTIPKEISSNTII VTKEGMVEMALLKSVLPPSLLEECTQLCRE MSEWLATEKDIDKGSFFSGWWTMNMPM GYKCADSFRFELVDTKVKQIQALLHDTFQH ILELANPKLFAKLSKLTERGQTPVVCFNMIP TRNESVKEKFQGSYKSTDKVNRPKTNHRD RNDMGISAMFYMGKFGGGSLQLIRVNEHT PKTLVHIQAGDVVLLRANKYRHAVSPTRPQ SFPLANSSQTEVDDVKICENSSPTLNNPQA DDNTPTLINTCPKQEPTDGDNPVQSSKEP SNDYEQKRFSFIFFAHRSHFKHSKVYCGM GQRQALNAFKADHPYYQSQRMKKKLGDD CLDQSLILTEKRKPIKRNYALFNECGDDKQ EESDEEEYQQYEPKPTTEEYTIKVIVDHEKV FKGSDQSRKSYLYHIQWLGYPDETWEPYE HLDDCQVFEDYLKHHNISLFDEEEEDRKV DDSMLLPAWMHEDESLFEALLPIICCSTDN PRHHLDDVPPFDFNY mYOX3 XP_002668005.1 9 MTEIVELSNIEPKDQKQAIIGGTWNRYGNS IEIVAGISDENNTLLDNLTNCCESFVLDKL WHLNRSMYNKLDTIEEKIKNFKTYAKYPSL ALNLLCKENYNGKVKPYRKHIDPNNNGMD VLMFFGKTFEGGNLIVSYHYTNIDFRMFTLP IQSGDLVFLNSRIYHHKVTKVTSGVRCGLV FFAGLDHFSVRKANYKKVKKEEYQKNMDD KLLALPFQQKDKDLRIERTKTGRKEIKQFH KNLQNNLPNKKRKK

FIG. 2A-B depicts the common structure among these 8 mYOX proteins, including a conserved domain structure 9 (see panel A) and conserved sequences in that conserved domain as revealed by a multiple sequence alignment (see panel B). These 8 proteins share a common consensus sequence: (R/K)X₄HXDX₁₂GX₁₈₋₃₀DX₁₀HXVX₇₋₇₂RX₅FA (SEQ ID NO:1).

Biochemical assays for characterization of these enzymes includes: non-quantitative assays, e.g., dot-blot assay using product-specific antibodies, thin-layer chromatography, and quantitative assays, e.g., LC/MS, radioactive assay etc.

mYOX enzymes may oxidize 5-mC through intermediate product forms to 5-caC. Mutants of these enzymes can be assayed for significant bias toward one oxidized form over another for example, a significant bias for conversion of 5-mC to 5-hmC or 5-mC to 5-fC or 5-caC. This allows direct detection of a single oxidation form and also a temporal means of tracking change in the oxidation state of modified nucleotides in the genome and correlation of these states and their changes to phenotypic change.

Additional mutants may include those that only oxidize 5-mC, or 5-hmC, or 5-fC, but not other modified forms of cytosine. For example, a mutant may oxidize 5-hmC to 5-fC or 5-caC, but will not work on 5-mC. These mutants may enable a variety of in vitro epigenomic mapping techniques.

Mutants can be engineered using standard techniques such as rational design by site-directed mutagenesis based on enzyme 3D structures and screening/selection methods in large random mutant libraries.

Embodiments of the invention include uses of mYOXs for mapping of both methylome and hydroxymethylome. For example, differentiation processes in eukaryotic organisms can be studied using N. gruberi as a model system. N. gruberi is a single-cell protist that can differentiate from an ameoba form to a flagella form in a synchronous manner. It thus forms a model system to study dynamic methylome/hydroxymethylome changes that contribute to the gene/pathway regulation during differentiation.

In one embodiment, the 5-mC in the genomic DNA can be converted to 5-hmC using an mYOX such as mYOX1 or other member of the mYOX family. Reducing agents, such as NaBH4, can be used in the reaction to ensure that any oxidation products in the form of 5-fC or 5-caC or naturally occurring instances of the same are converted to 5-hmC.

Any chemical or enzyme capable of promoting the reduction of 5-fC or 5-caC to 5-hmC can be used for that purpose. Many water-soluble metal or metalloid hydrides are able to reduce aldehydes and/or carboxylic acids to alcohols. Examples of such reducing agents are sodium borohydride and related compounds where from 1 to 3 of the hydrogens are replaced by other moieties, such as cyano and alkoxy containing up to about 5 carbon atoms. Examples of substituted borohydrides, all of which are sodium, potassium, or lithium salts, include cyanoborohydride, dicyanoborohydride, methoxyborohydride, dimethoxyborohydride, trimethoxyborohydride, ethoxyborohydride, diethoxyborohydride, triethoxyborohydride, propoxyborohydride, dipropoxyborohydride, tripropoxyborohydride, butoxyborohydride, dibutoxyborohydride, tributoxyborohydride, and so forth. Examples of other water-soluble metal hydrides include lithium borohydride, potassium borohydride, zinc borohydride, aluminum borohydride, zirconium borohydride, beryllium borohydride, and sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)aluminium hydride. Sodium borohydride can also be used in combination with a metal halide, such as cobalt(II), nickel(II), copper(II), zinc(II), cadmium (II), calcium (II), magnesium(II), aluminum(III), titanium (IV), hafnium(IV), or rhodium(III), each of which can be provided as a chloride, bromide, iodide, or fluoride salt. Alternatively, sodium borohydride can be used in combination with iodine, bromine, boron trifluoride diethyl etherate, trifluoroacetic acid, catechol-trifluoroacetic acid, sulfuric acid, or diglyme. Particular reducing strategies include the combination of potassium borohydride with lithium chloride, zinc chloride, magnesium chloride, or hafnium chloride; or the combination of lithium borohydride and chlorotrimethylsilane. Other reducing strategies include the use of borane, borane dimethyl sulfide complex, borane tetrahydrofuran complex, borane-ammonia complex, borane morpholine complex, borane dimethylamine complex, borane trimethylamine complex, borane N,N-diisopropylethylamine complex, borane pyridine complex, 2-picoline borane complex, borane 4-methylmorpholine complex, borane tert-butylamine complex, borane triphenylphosphine complex, borane N,N-diethylaniline complex, borane di(tert-butyl)phosphine complex, borane diphenylphosphine complex, borane ethylenediamine complex, or lithium ammonia borane. Alternative reducing strategies include the reduction of carboxylic acids via the formation of hydroxybenzotriazole esters, carboxy methyleniminium chlorides, carbonates, O-acylisoureas, acyl fluorides, cyanurates, mixed anhydrides, arylboronic anhydrides, acyl imidazolide, acyl azides, or N-acyl benzotriazoles, followed by reaction with sodium borohydride to give the corresponding alcohols.

Chemical groups, e.g., sugars such as glucose, can be added onto 5-hmC using a glycosyltransferase such as an α-glucosyltransferase (AGT) or a BGT. Useful glycosyltransferases can accept a nucleobase in a nucleic acid as a substrate. Exemplary BGT enzymes are found in bacteriophage, such as T4. The T4 BGT show little DNA sequence specificity, suggesting a mechanism of non-specific DNA binding combined with specific 5-hmC recognition.

Variants of the T4 BGT can be used. For example, the structure of T4 BGT and the identities of key residues in the enzyme are well understood, facilitating the construction of forms of the protein incorporating one or more amino acid deletions or substitutions. T4 BGT is a monomer comprising 351 amino acid residues and belongs to the α/β protein class. It is composed of two non-identical domains, both similar in topology to Rossmann nucleotide-binding folds, separated by a deep central cleft which forms the UDP-Glc binding site. Amino acids participating in the interaction with UDP include Ile238 (interactions with N3 and O4 of the base); Glu272 (interactions with O2′ and O3′ of the ribose); Ser189 (interacting with O11 of the α-phosphate); Arg191 (interacting with O12 of the α-phosphate); Arg269 (interacting with O6 of the α-phosphate and O22 of the β-phosphate); and Arg195 (interacting with O21 and O22 of the β-phosphate). Glu22 and Asp100 have been proposed to participate in the catalytic mechanism and other residues have been proposed to be involved in DNA binding or interactions with the UDP-associated sugar (Moréra et al. (1999) “T4 phage beta-glucosyltransferase: substrate binding and proposed catalytic mechanism.” J Mol. Biol. 292(3):717-730, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference).

Accordingly, a variant T4 BGT can be used to add a sugar to a nucleic acid. Variants optionally include an amino acid sequence at least 70% (e.g. at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 82%, at least 84%, at least 85%, at least 86%, at least 87%, at least 88%, at least 89%, at least 90%, at least 91%, at least 92%, at least 93%, at least 94%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99%, or 100%) identical to amino acids 1-351, 10-272 or 22-272 of T4 BGT. As assays for glycosylated nucleic acids (e.g. changes in susceptibility to cleavage by a glycosylation-sensitive endonuclease) are readily available, screening for variants retaining enzymatic activity is relatively straightforward.

Due to the more prominent difference between the 5-gmC and unmodified cytosine, direct observation of its signals in single-molecule sequencing experiments can be achieved using platforms such as PacBio (Pacific Biosciences, Menlo Park, Calif.) or Oxford Nanopore (Oxford, UK).

Modification-dependent or modification-sensitive endonucleases are described in WO2011/025819 incorporated by reference and also in REBASE® (www.neb.com, New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.) and include for example, MspI, MfeI, Taq, and HpaII endonucleases. Optionally, the endonuclease preferentially binds to a hydroxymethylated cytosine or a glucosyl-oxy-methylated cytosine and cleave the bound nucleic acid at a defined distance from the recognition site. Exemplary endonucleases include those whose amino acid sequences are identical to, or are at least 95% identical to, an enzyme selected from the group consisting of PvuRts1I, PpeHI, EsaSS310P, EsaRBORFBP, PatTI, YkrI, EsaNI, SpeAI, BbiDI, PfrCORF1I80P, PcoORF314P, BmeDI, AbaSI, AbaCI, AbaAI, AbaUMB3ORFAP and Asp6ORFAP, as described in US Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0301881 and/or at least 95% identical to an enzyme referenced in Borgaro et al. (2013) “Characterization of the 5-hydroxymethylcytosine-specific DNA restriction endonucleases,” Nucleic Acids Research, doi: 10.1093/nar/gkt102, the entire disclosures of each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Expression of mYOX1

mYOX1 was cloned in E. coli. T7 Express cells (New England Biolabs (NEB), Ipswich, Mass.) transformed with pTXB1-(His)6-mYOX1 which was induced with 50 μM IPTG at OD=0.8. The cells were grown at 16° C. for 12-16 hours and then lysed using a French press. The lysate supernatant was purified on a Ni-based affinity column followed by a heparin-based affinity column. The typical yield of isolated (His)6-mYOX1 was ˜7-8 mg protein/L culture. The pure protein sample was stored in 20 mM TRIS, pH 7.5, 1 mM DTT, 500 mM NaCl, and 50% glycerol at −20° C.

Example 2 Determination of Activity of mYOX1

(A) Conversion of 5-mC in a double-stranded DNA oligomer with 24 fully-methylated CpG sites (“24× Oligo”), as reflected by the HPLC chromatogram shown in FIG. 4A. The DNA sequence of the top strand, with the methylation sites underlined, is: 5′-ATTACACGCGCGATATCGTTAACGATAATTCGCGCGATTACGATCGATAACGCGTT AATA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 10). For each methylated cytosine in the top strand, the cytosine complementary to the subsequent guanine residue is also methylated, yielding a total of 24 methylated cytosines per double stranded DNA. The assay mix contained in a final volume of 20 μL: 50 mM Bis-TRIS pH 6.0, 50 mM NaCl, 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), 2 mM ascorbic acid, 2 mM α-ketoglutarate, 100 μM ferrous sulfate (FeSO₄), 2 μM oligonucleotide (24×), and 4 μM mYOX1.

The reaction mixture was incubated for 1 hour at 34° C. The protein was digested using proteinase K (NEB) at a final concentration of 1 μg/μL for 1 hour at 50° C. The DNA was recovered by using QIAquick® Nucleotide Removal Kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, Calif.). The recovered DNA was digested by a mixture of 0.5 U nuclease P1 (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.), 5 U antarctic phosphatase (NEB), 2 U DNAse I (NEB) in 20 μL total volume for 1 hour at 37° C. The digested DNA was then subjected to LC-MS analysis. LC-MS was done on Agilent 1200 series (G1316A UV Detector, 6120 Mass Detector, Agilent, Santa Clara, Calif.) with Waters Atlantis T3 (4.6×150 mm, 3 μm, Waters, Milford, Mass.) column with in-line filter and guard. The results are shown in FIG. 4A, in which the blue profile depicts a reaction mixture without mYOX1 and the red profile depicts a reaction mixture with mYOX1. 5-mC peak is detected in the blue profile, 5-hmC, 5-fC and 5-caC peaks are detected in the red profile. The results of these experiments are summarized in the table below.

DNA substrate mYOX1 ^(ca)C ^(hm)C ^(m)C ^(f)C 24x oligo − − − 100% − + 89.6% 6.2%  2.0% 2.3% pTXB1-M.Sss1 − − − 100% − + 91.2% 1.8%  1.0% 5.9% IMR90 − − − 100% − + 89.1% 1.7%  0.5% 8.7%

A variety of buffers and pHs were tested to assess the optimum buffer conditions for 5-mC conversion by mYOX1. The experiment was performed on a double-stranded DNA with one fully-methylated CpG site (5′-CGGCGTTTCCGGGTTCCATAGGCTCCGCCCCGGACTCTGATGACCAGGGCATCAC A-3′; underlined residue is 5-mC, as is the residue complementary to the adjacent guanine residue; SEQ ID NO: 11; “oligo 9”). The results are shown in the table below:

Buffer ^(ca)C ^(hm)C ^(m)C ^(f)C Citrate pH 5.0 — — 100%  — Citrate pH 5.5 — — 100%  — MES pH 5.5 10.2% 40.9% 9.2% 39.7% MES pH 5.75  7.7% 42.4% 7.0% 43.0% MES pH 6.0 25.1% 20.8% — 54.1% Bis-TRIS pH 6.0 38.5% 15.7% 2.1% 43.6% Bis-TRIS pH 6.5 26.1% 19.0% 0.9% 54.0% MOPS pH 6.5 38.8% 13.6% 2.1% 45.4% MOPS pH 6.75 41.7% 10.0% 0.7% 47.5% MOPS pH 7.0 31.7% 18.8% 0.6% 48.9% KH2PO4 pH7.0 — — 100%  — TRIS pH 7.5  5.9% 56.8% 7.1% 30.1% HEPES pH 7.3 20.5% 22.2% 1.0% 56.4% HEPES pH 7.5 18.5% 37.4% 1.2% 42.8% HEPES pH 8.0 — 16.8% 81.2%   2.0%

As shown in the table, mYOX1 was active at pH 8.0, oxidizing a portion of the 5-mC to 5-hmC and 5-fC. However, the enzyme was even more active at lower pH. For example, at pH 7.5, approximately 90% of the 5-mC residues were oxidized, with most of the product present as 5-hmC and 5-fC. At pH 7.3, the proportions of 5-mC and 5-hmC decreased, with increasing proportions of 5-fC and 5-caC. The proportions of 5-mC and 5-hmC continued to decrease with decreasing pH through pH 6.0, at which point substantially all of the 5-mC nucleotides were oxidized more than one third to 5-caC. Thus, the enzyme appears to be maximally active at about pH 6. The pH conditions could be used to manipulate distribution of 5-mC oxidation products. The pH-dependence of mYOX1 activity was surprising, as TET enzymes are routinely used at pH 8.

The activity of mYOX1 was tested on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) substrates and compared to that of a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) with the same sequence under the same experimental conditions discussed for 24× oligo. Surprisingly, it was found that mYOX1 oxidizes 5-mC in ssDNA as efficiently as dsDNA. Substrates included double-stranded “oligo 9”; “hemi-oligo 9,” a double stranded DNA identical to oligo 9 but lacking methylcytosine on the complementary strand; “ss oligo 9 (top),” a single stranded DNA including only the residues recited in SEQ ID NO: 11; and “ss oligo 9 (bottom),” a single stranded DNA including the residues complementary to the residues recited in SEQ ID NO:11.

Substrate ^(ca)C ^(hm)C ^(m)C ^(f)C ds oligo 9 80.8% 6.9% 1.7% 10.6%  hemi-oligo 9 88.7% 6.3% 1.7% 3.4% ss oligo 9 (top) 92.4% 3.0% 0.4% 1.9% ss oligo 9 (bottom) 94.8 3.0% 0.4% 1.9%

Interestingly, mYOX1 was further shown to exhibit activity on a 1.6 kb RNA substrate (“5-mc RNA”) having all its cytosines in 5-mC form:

(SEQ ID NO: 12) gggtctagaaataattttgtttaactttaagaaggagatatacatatgaa aatcgaagaaggtaaaggtcaccatcaccatcaccacggatccatggaag acgccaaaaacataaagaaaggcccggcgccattctatcctctagaggat ggaaccgctggagagcaactgcataaggctatgaagagatacgccctggt tcctggaacaattgcttttacagatgcacatatcgaggtgaacatcacgt acgcggaatacttcgaaatgtccgttcggttggcagaagctatgaaacga tatgggctgaatacaaatcacagaatcgtcgtatgcagtgaaaactctct tcaattctttatgccggtgttgggcgcgttatttatcggagttgcagttg cgcccgcgaacgacatttataatgaacgtgaattgctcaacagtatgaac atttcgcagcctaccgtagtgtttgtttccaaaaaggggttgcaaaaaat tttgaacgtgcaaaaaaaattaccaataatccagaaaattattatcatgg attctaaaacggattaccagggatttcagtcgatgtacacgttcgtcaca tctcatctacctcccggttttaatgaatacgattttgtaccagagtcctt tgatcgtgacaaaacaattgcactgataatgaattcctctggatctactg ggttacctaagggtgtggcccttccgcatagaactgcctgcgtcagattc tcgcatgccagagatcctatttttggcaatcaaatcattccggatactgc gattttaagtgttgttccattccatcacggttttggaatgtttactacac tcggatatttgatatgtggatttcgagtcgtcttaatgtatagatttgaa gaagagctgtttttacgatcccttcaggattacaaaattcaaagtgcgtt gctagtaccaaccctattttcattcttcgccaaaagcactctgattgaca aatacgatttatctaatttacacgaaattgcttctgggggcgcacctctt tcgaaagaagtcggggaagcggttgcaaaacgcttccatcttccagggat acgacaaggatatgggctcactgagactacatcagctattctgattacac ccgagggggatgataaaccgggcgcggtcggtaaagttgttccatttttt gaagcgaaggttgtggatctggataccgggaaaacgctgggcgttaatca gagaggcgaattatgtgtcagaggacctatgattatgtccggttatgtaa acaatccggaagcgaccaacgccttgattgacaaggatggatggctacat tctggagacatagcttactgggacgaagacgaacacttcttcatagttga ccgcttgaagtctttaattaaatacaaaggatatcaggtggcccccgctg aattggaatcgatattgttacaacaccccaacatcttcgacgcgggcgtg gcaggtcttcccgacgatgacgccggtgaacttcccgccgccgttgttgt tttggagcacggaaagacgatgacggaaaaagagatcgtggattacgtcg ccagtcaagtaacaaccgcgaaaaagttgcgcggaggagttgtgtttgtg gacgaagtaccgaaaggtcttaccggaaaactcgacgcaagaaaaatcag agagatcctcataaaggccaagaagggcggaaagtccaaactcgagtaag gttaacctgcaggagg. The assay conditions were as follows: 50 mM Bis-TRIS pH 6.0, 50 mM NaCl, 1 mM DTT, 2 mM ascorbic acid, 2 mM α-ketoglutarate, 100 μM FeSO₄, 1 μg 5-mC RNA, and 4 μM mYOX1. The reaction mixture was incubated for 1 hour at 34° C. The protein was digested using proteinase K (NEB) at a final concentration of 1 μg/μL for 1 hour at 37° C. The RNA was recovered by using QIAquick® Nucleotide Removal Kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, Calif.). The recovered RNA was digested into nucleosides and analyzed by LC-MS as described in example 2A. The results were as follows:

DNA substrate mYOX1 r^(ca)C r^(hm)C r^(m)C r^(f)C 5-mC RNA − − −  100% − + − 40.9% 36.8% 22.3%

(B) Conversion of 5-mC in plasmid and genomic DNA, as depicted in the HPLC chromatogram shown in FIGS. 4B and 4C, respectively. The assay components are as follows: 50 mM Bis-TRIS pH 6.0, 50 mM NaCl, 1 mM DTT, 2 mM ascorbic acid, 2 mM α-ketoglutarate, 100 μM FeSO₄, 2 μg DNA, and 20 μM mYOX1.

The reaction mixture was incubated for 1 hour at 34° C. The reaction mixture was then digested with proteinase K for 1 hour at 50° C. The DNA was recovered by using QIAquick® PCR Purification Kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, Calif.). The recovered DNA was digested and analyzed by LC-MS as described in Example 2A. As shown, mYOX1 efficiently oxygenates 5-mC in plasmid and genomic DNA samples.

(C) ATP interferes with the chemical processivity of mYOX1 (ability to undergo second and third oxidation steps) as reflected in the table presented below. This is contradictory to what has been described for the TET enzymes where the presence of ATP has been required for the formation of higher amounts of 5-caC. Experimental conditions are as described before for oligos 24× and oligo9.

1 mM DNA substrate mYOX1 ATP ^(ca)C ^(hm)C ^(m)C ^(f)C oligo9 − − − − 100% − + − 38.7% 15.7%  2.1% 43.6% + + 13.6% 40.9%  2.3% 43.2%

Example 3 mYOX1 can be Used in Conjunction with BGT

An mYOX1/T4-BGT coupled assay was performed as described in Example 2A for genomic DNA (IMR90), with the following exceptions: 50 mM Hepes pH 7.0 was used instead of Bis-Tris pH 6.0, and 40 μM uridine diphosphoglucose (UDP-Glc) and 50 U T4 BGT were added in the oxidation reaction.

Alternatively, for bacterial genomic DNA (MG1655), the reaction was carried out exactly as described in Example 2A. Then the reaction mixture was digested with proteinase K for 1 hour at 50° C. The sample was then treated with 100 mM NaBH₄, 40 μM uridine diphosphoglucose (UDP-Glc) and 50 U T4-BGT in 1×NEBuffer 4 (NEB) and incubated for 1 hour at 37° C. The DNA was recovered by using QIAquick® PCR Purification Kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, Calif.). The recovered DNA was digested and analyzed by LC-MS as described in Example 2A, and the results are summarized in the table below.

Substrate T4-βGT NaBH₄ ^(ca)C ^(hm)C ^(m)C β-^(ghm)C ^(f)C IMR90 in −  7.4% − 4.1% 85.9% 2.6% oxidation reaction MG1655 after + 29.3% − 3.0% 67.7% − oxidation/ reduction

The effects of increasing ATP concentration on the activity of mYOX1 when coupled with the activity of T4-BGT in the presence of NaBH₄ and UDP-Glc were tested. ATP concentrations higher than 1 mM exhibit inhibiting effects on the activity of mYOX1 to convert 5-mC to 5-hmC. The reaction was carried out exactly as described in Example 2A for oligo 9 except for the duration of the oxidation reaction (20 minutes instead of 1 hour), and the presence of varying amounts of ATP. The reaction mixture was then digested with proteinase K and glucosylated using T4 BGT as described above for MG1655 genomic DNA. The DNA was recovered by using QIAquick® PCR Purification Kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, Calif.). The recovered DNA was digested and analyzed by LC-MS as described in Example 2A, and the results are summarized in the table below.

ATP Substrate (mM) ^(ca)C ^(hm)C ^(m)C β-^(ghm)C ^(f)C Oligo9 0.5 4.8% — 9.4% 85.8% — 1 — — 13.4% 83.7% — 2 — — 34.4% 65.6% — 4 — — 62.1% 37.9% —

Example 4 Qualitative and Quantitative Assays for Characterization of the mYOX Family of Enzymes

Immunodot-blot assay: This is a qualitative, but relatively fast assay. Many samples can be tested simultaneously, which can be used for screening purposes, e.g., tracking active fractions during the enzyme purification process. By immobilizing the reacted DNA onto a membrane, it was possible to confirm the identity of the oxidation products of 5-mC, i.e. 5-hmC, 5-fC and 5-caC by probing with specific antibodies (obtainable from Active Motif, Carlsbad, Calif.).

LC-MS analysis: To quantify mYOX1 oxidation products, LC-MS analysis was performed on a reverse-phase Waters Atlantis T3 C18 column (3 μm, 4.6×150 mm) with an Agilent 1200 LC-MS system equipped with an Agilent G1315D DAD detector and an Agilent 6120 Quadruple MS detector. A binary solvent system with ammonium acetate (10 mM, pH 4.5) and methanol was used. The HPLC method included an isocratic condition with 2% methanol for 10 minutes followed by a slow gradient from 2% to 25% methanol in 30 minutes. The quantification of each nucleoside was based on the peak area by integration of each peak at 278 nm with UV detector. For more accurate quantification, each nucleoside peak can be quantified at its absorption maximum and adjusted by the extinction coefficient constant. The identity of each peak was confirmed by MS.

Example 5 5-hmC Specific Endonuclease Assay

We have developed a family of 5-hmC specific endonucleases which digest 5-hmC at the site of ^(5-hmC)N₂₂₋₂₃G. By cloning the HpaII DNA methylase (C^(m)CGG) into a vector with only two CCGG sites, the vector will contain two sites of ^(5-mc)N₂₂₋₂₃G. When the 5-mC in these sites were oxidized to 5-hmC, digestion using the 5-hmC specific endonuclease such as PvuRts1I or AbaSI produced a DNA fragment detectable in an agarose gel. This method detected 5-hmC only.

Example 6 Methods for Sequencing the Methylome and Hydroxymethylome Using the DNA Modification-Dependent Restriction Endonucleases

Genomic DNA was digested with either MspJI or AbaSI. These enzymes cleaved the DNA at fixed distances from the modified cytosine leaving a sticky end (MspJI: 4-base 5′-overhang; AbaSI: 2-base 3′-overhang). The first biotinylated adaptor (P1b in FIG. 5) was then ligated to the cleaved ends. The ligated DNA was then subjected to random fragmentation to about 300 bp. Avidin beads were used to pull out the fragments with the ligated P1b. After polishing the ends, adaptor P2 was then ligated onto the DNA fragments on the beads. Adaptor-specific PCR was performed and the resultant DNA entered the library preparation pipeline for specific sequencing using the HiSeq® platform (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.). The end-sequencing was done from the P1 end.

Bioinformatic analysis of the sequencing reads utilized the P1 ends to mark the enzyme's cleavage sites. After mapping the read back to the reference genome, the modified cytosine was determined to be located at a fixed distance away from the cleavage sites and on either side. 

What is claimed:
 1. A method for differentiating a 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) from 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC) in a genome or genome fragment, comprising: (a) reacting the isolated genome or genome fragment containing 5-mC and 5-hmC with: i. a UDP-associated sugar and a glucosyltransferase that transfers the sugar to the 5hmC, and ii. a polypeptide that has 5-methylpyrimidine oxygenase activity and comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to amino acids 154-304 of SEQ ID NO: 2; (b) cleaving the product of (a) with a modification-dependent endonuclease that recognizes at least one of the modified nucleotides; and (c) differentiating the 5-mC from the 5-hmC by an altered cleavage pattern.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the modification-dependent endonuclease is AbaSI.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical to amino acids 154-304 of SEQ ID NO:
 2. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence that identical to amino acids 154-304 of SEQ ID NO:
 2. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 90% identical to SEQ ID NO:
 2. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical to SEQ ID NO:
 2. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence that is identical to SEQ ID NO:
 2. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the polypeptide further comprises a binding domain.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the binding domain is selected from the group consisting of: a His-tag, a maltose-binding protein, a chitin binding domain, and a DNA binding domain.
 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the binding domain comprising a zinc finger or transcription activator-like (TAL) effector domain.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the polypeptide is a fusion protein.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the reacting step (a) is done in a buffer that does not contain ATP.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the reacting step (a) is done in a buffer that contains ATP.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the reacting step (a) is done at a pH in the range of pH 6 to pH
 8. 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the reacting step (a) is done at a pH in the range of pH 6 to pH 7.5.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the reacting step (a) is done in a buffer that comprises Fe(II) and α-ketoglutarate.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the UDP-associated sugar is UDP-glucose.
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein the UDP-associated sugar is UDP-glucosamine.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein the glucosyltransferase is T4 DNA β-glucosyltransferase. 